Anthropogenic Threats to Ecosystem Services of Maldivian Coral Reefs: Current Policies and Solutions

Afma. (n.d.). What is fishing quota? Australian Fisheries Management Authority. https://www.afma.gov.au/what-fishing-quota

Asian Development Bank. (2007). Maldives: Environment Assessment. https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/institutional-document/32188/environment-assessment-maldives.pdf

Bluemarinefoundation. (2020, December 29). Tourism – The cause of or solution to overfishing of reef fish in the Maldives? Blue Marine Foundation. https://www.bluemarinefoundation.com/2020/12/10/tourism-the-cause-of-or-solution-to-overfishing-of-reef-fish-in-the-maldives/

Brown, B. E., & Dunne, R. P. (1988). The environmental impact of coral mining on coral reefs in the Maldives. Environmental Conservation, 15(2), 159-165. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0376892900028976

Brown, S., Wadey, M. P., Nicholls, R. J., Shareef, A., Khaleel, Z., Hinkel, J., Lincke, D., & McCabe, M. V. (2019). Land raising as a solution to sea‐level rise: An analysis of coastal flooding on an artificial island in the Maldives. Journal of Flood Risk Management, 13(S1). https://doi.org/10.1111/jfr3.12567

Bullivant. (1968). A Revised Classification of Suspension Feeders. Tuatara, 16(2).

Castro, P., & Huber, M. (2016). LearnSmart Standalone access card for marine biology. McGraw-Hill Education.

Chamas et al. (2015). Degradation of plastics in the environment. Plastics and Environmental Sustainability, 145-184. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119009405.ch6

Coleman, F. C., & Williams, S. L. (2002). Overexploiting marine ecosystem engineers: Potential consequences for biodiversity. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 17(1), 40-44. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0169-5347(01)02330-8

Cramer, K. L., Bernard, M. L., Bernat, I., Gutierrez, L., Murphy, E. L., Sangolquí, P., Surrey, K. C., & Gerber, L. R. (2021). The present and future status of ecosystem services for coral reefs. Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-821139-7.00177-x

Eddy, T. D., Lam, V. W., Reygondeau, G., Cisneros-Montemayor, A. M., Greer, K., Palomares, M. L., Bruno, J. F., Ota, Y., & Cheung, W. W. (2021). Global decline in capacity of coral reefs to provide ecosystem services. One Earth, 4(9), 1278-1285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2021.08.016

Fao. (n.d.). Review of the state of world marine capture fisheries management: Indian Ocean. https://www.fao.org/3/a0477e/a0477e0y.htm

Google. (n.d.). Thilafushi amount of garbage - Google search. https://www.google.com/search?q=thilafushi+amount+of+garbafge&rlz=1C5CHFA_enSG968SG983&oq=thilafushi+amount+of+garbafge&aqs=chrome..69i57.12223j0j4&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8&safe=active&ssui=on

Greenepeace. (2015, July 1). Pole & line fishing in the Maldives. Greenpeace USA. https://www.greenpeace.org/usa/the-fairest-catch/pole-line-fishing-in-the-maldives/

The Guardian. (2021, October 29). More than 60% of Maldives' coral reefs hit by bleaching. the Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/aug/08/more-than-60-of-maldives-coral-reefs-hit-by-bleaching#:~:text=More%20than%2060%25%20of%20coral,2016%2C%20a%20scientific%20survey%20suggests

Hilmi, N., Osborn, D., Acar, S., Bambridge, T., Chlous, F., Cinar, M., Djoundourian, S., Haraldsson, G., Lam, V. W., Maliki, S., De Marffy Mantuano, A., Marshall, N., Marshall, P., Pascal, N., Recuero-Virto, L., Rehdanz, K., & Safa, A. (2019). Socio-economic tools to mitigate the impacts of ocean acidification on economies and communities reliant on coral reefs — a framework for prioritization. Regional Studies in Marine Science, 28, 100559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsma.2019.100559

Hiroshima University. (2014). What are mechanisms of zooxanthella expulsion from coral? sciencedaily. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/12/141229092600.htm

Hoegh-Guldberg, O. (1999). Climate change, coral bleaching and the future of the world's coral reefs. Marine and Freshwater Research. https://doi.org/10.1071/mf99078

Ialasia. (2021, September 18). Fisheries in the Maldives. Institute of Animal Law of Asia. https://www.ialasia.org/projects/fisheries-in-the-maldives

Ipnlf. (2021, December 8). IPNLF to launch ghost net retrieval project in the Maldives. IPNLF. https://ipnlf.org/ipnlf-to-launch-ghost-net-retrieval-project-in-the-maldives/

Iucn. (2018, March 13). Garbage in, garbage out: Waste management in the Maldives. IUCN. https://www.iucn.org/news/asia/201801/garbage-garbage-out-waste-management-maldives

IUCN. (2020, February 17). Ghost nets: Silent killers in the oceans. https://www.iucn.org/content/ghost-nets-silent-killers-oceans

Jaleel, A. (2013). The status of the coral reefs and the management approaches: The case of the Maldives. Ocean & Coastal Management, 82, 104-118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2013.05.009

Kinzie, R. A., Takayama, M., SantoS, S. R., & Coffroth, M. A. (2001). The adaptive bleaching hypothesis: experimental tests of critical assumptions. The Biological Bulletin, 51(8). https://doi.org/10.2307/1543084

Knoema. (2019, June 4). Maldives contribution of travel and tourism to GDP (% of GDP), 1995-2019 - knoema.com. https://knoema.com/atlas/Maldives/topics/Tourism/Travel-and-Tourism-Total-Contribution-to-GDP/Contribution-of-travel-and-tourism-to-GDP-percent-of-GDP

Lajeunesse. (2020, October 5). Quick Guide- Zooxanthellae. Current Biology Magazine, 30, 1110.

McAdoo, B. G., Ah-Leong, J. S., Bell, L., Ifopo, P., Ward, J., Lovell, E., & Skelton, P. (2011). Coral reefs as buffers during the 2009 South Pacific tsunami, Upolu island, Samoa. Earth-Science Reviews, 107(1-2), 147-155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2010.11.005

Miller, K. I., Nadheeh, I., Jauharee, A. R., Anderson, R. C., & Adam, M. S. (2017). Bycatch in the Maldivian pole-and-line tuna fishery. PLOS ONE, 12(5), e0177391. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0177391

Mongabay. (2021, February 3). New approaches needed to protect biodiversity as Aichi targets go unmet. Mongabay Environmental News. https://news.mongabay.com/2021/02/new-approaches-needed-to-protect-biodiversity-as-aichi-targets-go-unmet/#:~:text=The%20Aichi%20Biodiversity%20Targets%20were,security%2C%20health%20and%20clean%20water

Montefalcone, M., Morri, C., & Bianchi, C. N. (2020). Influence of local pressures on Maldivian coral reef resilience following repeated bleaching events, and recovery perspectives. Frontiers in Marine Science, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2020.00587

Mörner, N., Tooley, M., & Possnert, G. (2004). New perspectives for the future of the Maldives. Global and Planetary Change, 40(1-2), 177-182. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0921-8181(03)00108-5

NASA. (2021, April 9). Preparing for rising seas in the Maldives. NASA Earth Observatory. https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/148158/preparing-for-rising-seas-in-the-maldives#:~:text=With%20more%20than%2080%20percent,vulnerable%20to%20sea%20level%20rise

Naseer. (1997). Workshop on integrated reef resources management in the Maldives, male, Maldives, 16-20 March 1996.

National geographic. (2022, January 20). The Maldives is being swallowed by the sea. Can it adapt? National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/the-maldives-is-being-swallowed-by-the-sea-can-it-adapt

Nature. (2020, February 18). The United Nations must get its new biodiversity targets right. Nature, 578, 337-338.

NOAA. (2011, April 4). Why are coral reefs called the rainforests of the sea? Welcome to the NOAA Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. https://floridakeys.noaa.gov/corals/biodiversity.html

Patti, T. B., Fobert, E. K., Reeves, S. E., & Burke da Silva, K. (2020). Spatial distribution of microplastics around an inhabited coral island in the Maldives, Indian Ocean. Science of The Total Environment, 748, 141263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141263

R.B. Langerhans. (2008). Encyclopedia of ecology: G-O (2nd ed.).

Reefcause. (2021, April 20). What is coral mining and what can we do to fight it? - ReefCause. Conservation.Reefcause.com. https://conservation.reefcause.com/what-is-coral-mining-and-what-can-we-do-to-fight-it/

Reefplan. (n.d.). How does sediment affect the Great Barrier Reef? Reef 2050 Water Quality Improvement Plan. https://www.reefplan.qld.gov.au/resources/explainers/how-does-sediment-affect-the-gbr#:~:text=Scientists%20now%20know%20that%20high,%E2%80%93%E2%80%93%20and%20even%20smother%20corals

Reefplan. (n.d.). How does sediment affect the Great Barrier Reef? Reef 2050 Water Quality Improvement Plan. https://www.reefplan.qld.gov.au/resources/explainers/how-does-sediment-affect-the-gbr#:~:text=Scientists%20now%20know%20that%20high,%E2%80%93%E2%80%93%20and%20even%20smother%20corals

Roux, G. L. (2016). Transforming representations of marine pollution. For a new understanding of the artistic qualities and social values of ghost nets. Anthrovision, (4.1). https://doi.org/10.4000/anthrovision.2221

Saliu, F., Montano, S., Leoni, B., Lasagni, M., & Galli, P. (2019). Microplastics as a threat to coral reef environments: Detection of phthalate esters in neuston and scleractinian corals from the Faafu atoll, Maldives. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 142, 234-241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.03.043

Ssg. (n.d.). SSG | Waste management. cwp-sf-base. https://www.ssg.gov.sg/wsq/Industry-and-Occupational-Skills/Waste-Management-and-Recycling-Industry.html#:~:text=About%2061%25%20of%20Singapore%27s%20waste,Singapore%27s%20only%20landfill%2C%20Semakau%20Landfill

Stachowicz, J. J., Fried, H., Osman, R. W., & Whitlatch, R. B. (2002). Biodiversity, invasion resistance, and marine ecosystem function: Reconciling pattern and process. Ecology, 83(9), 2575-2590. https://doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658(2002)083[2575:birame]2.0.co;2

Statisticsmaldives. (2018). Statistical yearbook 2018. Maldives Bureau of Statistics. https://statisticsmaldives.gov.mv/yearbook/2018/fisheries-agriculture/

Tamario, C., Sunde, J., Petersson, E., Tibblin, P., & Forsman, A. (2019). Ecological and evolutionary consequences of environmental change and management actions for migrating fish. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2019.00271

Themaldivesexpert. (2019, 18). Fishing in the Maldives. The Maldives Expert. https://www.themaldivesexpert.com/1821/fishing-in-the-maldives/

Theworld. (2014, October 27). An island of toxic trash plagues the Maldives. The World from PRX. https://theworld.org/stories/2014-10-27/island-toxic-trash-plagues-maldives

Towardszerowaste. (n.d.). The science behind incineration. Towards Zero Waste Singapore. https://www.towardszerowaste.gov.sg/science_behind_incineration/

USGS. (2022, March 1). Role of reefs in coastal protection | U.S. geological survey. USGS.gov | Science for a changing world. https://www.usgs.gov/centers/pcmsc/science/role-reefs-coastal-protection#:~:text=Coral%20reefs%2C%20in%20particular%2C%20can,characterized%20by%20coastal%20engineering%20models

Worldbank. (2010, April 6). Climate change in the Maldives. World Bank. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2010/04/06/climate-change-in-the-maldives

Zhang, H., & Cao, L. (2016). Simulated effect of calcification feedback on atmospheric CO2 and ocean acidification. Scientific Reports, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/srep20284